Unit 2 Culture
Part One:Supporting Your Speech
一篇演讲的好坏往往取决于是否具备能够充分证明论点的论据。论据不仅能支撑观点,还能帮助演讲者不断吸引听众的注意力。因此,一个娴熟的演讲者必须要学会如何明智地选择并有策略地使用支撑材料。本章将着重介绍三类基本的论据,即例证、数据和证言以及如何有效使用论据的一些基本原则。
Ⅰ.例证
例证是代表某一类事物的具体案例,除了能够帮助演讲者阐明和强调演讲的观点,还能将这些观点个性化,并唤起听众的情感共鸣。没有例子,观点往往显得模糊、无生机;而有了例子,观点才能变得具体而生动。例证一般分为以下三种类型:
1.简短的例子
简短的例子是指在演讲中为了证明某一点顺带提到的具体例证,长度一般在两到三句之内。比如,美国总统奥巴马在2008年的获胜演讲中说道,“But above all,I will never forget who this victory truly belongs to.It belongs to you.It belongs to you.”为了证明胜利来自人民,他继续说到:“Our campaign...was built by working men and women who dug into what little savings they had to give $5 and $10 and $20 to the cause.”这个简短的例子让人更明确清楚地了解到美国人民在这次选举中做的贡献。因此,简短的例子可以快速地阐明一个观点或者介绍一个话题。
此外,几个叠加的简短例子的效果往往会好于单个的例子,甚至强于一个详细的例子。因为如果只举一个例子,观众或许会觉得那是个特例,并没有代表性。如果同时举几个简短的例子,就更有说服力。比如,为了强化胜利来自人民这一观点,奥巴马继续说道:“It grew strength from the young people who rejected the myth of their generation's apathy who left their homes and their families for jobs that offered little pay and less sleep.It drew strength from the not-so-young people who braved the bitter cold and scorching heat to knock on doors of perfect strangers,and from the millions of Americans who volunteered and organized and proved that more than two centuries later a government of the people,by the people,and for the people has not perished from the Earth.This is your victory.”正是通过叠加这些简短的例子,“胜利属于人民”才能够被人们进一步理解,且让人印象深刻。
2.详细的例子
详细的例子比简短的例子更长,包含更多细节,往往通过实例、叙述或者一些趣文轶事的方式呈现,因为故事往往能让人记忆犹新,它能够在听众的脑海呈现生动的画面。因此,详细的例子可以深深地吸引观众,拨动他们的心弦。比如,在澳大利亚前总理陆克文(Kevin Rudd)的一个演讲中,他向原住民们道歉,为他们所遭受的残忍待遇感到抱歉。在演讲中,他分享了一位已80岁高龄的原住民老太太的故事,以阐明道歉的原因。
Nanna Nungala Fejo,as she prefers to be called,was born in the late 1920s.She remembers her earliest childhood days living with her family and her community in a bush camp just outside Tennant Creek.She remembers the love and the warmth and the kinship of those days long ago,including traditional dancing around the camp fire at night.She loved the dancing.She remembers once getting into strife when,as a four-year-old girl,she insisted on dancing with the male tribal elders rather than just sitting and watching the men,as the girls were supposed to do.
But then,sometime around 1932,when she was about four,she remembers the coming of the welfare men.Her family had feared that day and had dug holes in the creek bank where the children could run and hide.What they had not expected was that the white welfare men did not come alone.They brought a truck,two white men and an Aboriginal stockman on horseback cracking his stockwhip.The kids were found;they ran for their mothers,screaming,but they could not get away.They were herded and piled onto the back of the truck.Tears flowing,her mum tried clinging to the sides of the truck as her children were taken away to the Bungalow in Alice,all in the name of protection.
前半部分的细节,如一个四岁的女孩热爱跳舞,会让人觉得这就是我们身边的一个小女孩。然而后半部分,“The kids were found;they ran for their mothers,screaming...They were herded and piled...Tears flowing...”所有这些细节描写不仅和之前的快乐形成鲜明对比,还能让人直观地感受到原住民们受到的伤害。如果陆克文仅仅说:“The aboriginal people have received terrible treatments from the immigrants”,听众的感触恐怕不会那么深。因此,如果能恰当地使用详细的例子,可以把听众带入你的演讲,并让他们聚精会神。
3.假设的例子
假设的例子可以是简短的例子也可以是详细的例子,但区别在于,它们并没有真实发生。使用这类例证,并非是要糊弄听众,而是通过有效的假设让听众们能够对某一情形下的某一个人产生共鸣。
比如,在一个题为“What I saw in the war”的演讲中,演讲者是这样开头的:“This is how war starts.One day you're living your ordinary life,you're planning to go to a party,you're taking your children to school,you're making a dentist appointment.The next thing,the telephones go out,the TVs go out,there's armed men on the street,there's roadblocks.Your life as you know it goes into suspended animation.It stops.”
这样一个假设的场景很自然地把听众带入战争这个话题,让他们感同身受——对于普通人战争意味着什么。因此,在演讲时,如果你能让听众觉得,他们就是你的例子里的主人公,他们会更愿意从你的角度看待和思考问题。同时,在使用假设的例子时,最好能同时使用证言或者数据,这样才能让听众觉得你的例子中假设的场景可能会真实发生。
4.使用例证的技巧
首先,通过细节尽可能让例子生动和丰富,让观众能通过你的例子听到、看到和感受到发生的一切。其次,将例子与数据、证言结合使用会使例子的效果更佳(数据和证言的使用会在下文具体谈到)。总之,不能低估例子的作用,它们有助于支撑你的观点,帮助观众理解你的要点,还能让你的演讲深植人心。然而,恰当的例子需要精心斟酌,要想善于使用例子,首先,我们得学会从生活中搜集例子。书本或者与人交谈,都是我们获得例子的途径。其次,在日常生活中练习使用例子,比如,向朋友或者家人表达观点时,尽可能使用例证。总之,熟能生巧。
Ⅱ.证言
证言是指在演讲中引用他人的话或者观点来支撑你的观点。恰当使用证言时,它们可以提升演讲的可信度。最常用的证言有以下两类:一是来自专家的证言;二是来自同伴的证言。
1.专家证言
专家证言来自专家、权威、名人或者一些励志人物的故事,他们说的话或者他们的观点。人们常会使用这类证言来使自己的演讲更可信,证明自己的观点有权威人士支持,并非空穴来风。比如,为了证明想象力的重要性,一位演讲者引用了诺贝尔奖获得者爱因斯坦的名言来支撑自己的观点:“Logic,”Einstein famously said,“will get you from A to B.But imagination will take you everywhere.”可见,在演讲中融入专家证词可以使我们的演讲更有说服力。
2.同伴证言
在某些情形下,同伴证言会比专家证言显得更真实,在情感上更有冲击力。来自普通人的证言,比如你的同学、朋友甚至路人的证言可以为你的话题提供第一手经验,增加更多个人的色彩。比如,当你想说服你的同学晚睡对身体有害时,你可以说:“Mr.Han,our neighbor,who is a master in Traditional Chinese Medicine,warned me time and again that staying up late and getting up late was not in tune with nature,and that if someone went against nature,his or her practice would backfire on health.”这段话虽然是引自邻居,但因为他是中药专家,在养生方面比较有发言权,显得可信又亲近。
3.使用证言的技巧
使用证言时,首先需要决定是直接引用还是间接引用。如果证言简短有力,不妨直接引用,但如果原句较为复杂,还是用自己的话复述比较好。第二,要准确引用证言,在引用时要确保没有误解原句的意思,切不可断章取义,不然会给观众留下不好的印象。第三,确保证言的来源可靠。比如,就手机这一话题,一位歌手给出的证言更可靠还是一位高级技师的证言更可靠?明显应该引用受到认可的专家证言或者就演讲话题有特殊经历的同伴证言。第四,确保证言的公正性。比如,如果麦当劳的经理说快餐不会使人肥胖,这可信吗?显然可信度不高,因为观众很可能会怀疑该证言的公正性。因此,应该避免引用可能会有偏见之嫌的证言。最后,指明引证的出处,这不仅能使你的演讲更可信,还可避免抄袭之嫌。
Ⅲ.数据
现如今,我们身处在一个数据的年代,政府执行新政策时,公司要开发新市场时,都需要数据来帮助他们做决策。数据被广泛使用是因为人们倾向于相信具体的数字。学会恰当地使用数据可以有效地帮助解释和说明一个问题,从而省去不少说理的时间。要能恰当使用数据,需要注意以下几点:
1.使用具有代表性的数据。比如,“According to our survey,6 out of 10 interviewees believe that universities should install air conditioners in the dormitories at the expense of students.”这样的数据得出的结论有说服力吗?很明显没有。10人为基础的调查还不足以成为一个可信的样本。要收集具有代表性的数据,需要确保被访者来自不同年龄层次、不同职业以及不同的社会经济阶层。总之,要让你的数据能够代表它们需要陈述的观点。
2.指出数据的来源。如果你不能说出你使用的数据出自何处,听众可能会怀疑这些数据是编造的,并不令人信服。因此,要避免使用下列表达:“According to this statistics...statistics shows...或者my figure demonstrates...”。正确的引用数据的方式,应该是:“According to statistics from the WHO...China Daily states that...or statistics from Bank of China show...”明显,指明数据的来源会增加演讲的可信度。
3.使用可靠的数据。假设你在讨论奶粉的有毒成分,你会想使用什么样的数据呢?来自CFDA(国家食品药品监督管理总局China Food and Drug Administration)的数据还是来自某个奶粉厂家的数据?切记避免选择可能会有观点偏向的数据,因为数据是可以被更改和操控的。
4.简化复杂数据同时解释数据。使用复杂的数据需要特殊的理由。大多数情况下,我们应尽可能简化复杂的数据。比如,“This figure means that 304.652364 billion text messages were sent last year.”最好简化为“This figure means that about 300 billion text messages were sent last year.”
此外,最好解释一下你使用的数据,让它们尽可能和你的观众们联系起来。比如,这样一组数据:“According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China,in July,food price went up by 5% year-on-year,in which the prices of fresh vegetables rose 11.8%,and fresh fruit were up by 7.3%.”说完这组数据,观众可能还是比较茫然。这时就需要解释一下这组数据:“This figure means that if you could buy 4 apples with 20 RMB in July last year,you have to pay 21 RMB for the same 4 apples this year regardless of other factors that influence price.”通过这样的解释,听众想必能更好地理解你的意思。
5.使用视觉帮助。想让数据的使用达到最佳效果,最好是在演讲中结合视觉帮助。比如,使用多组数据时,听众很容易跟不上,这个时候如果能同时使用图表,如柱形图、饼图等,可以有效帮助听众理解你所说的数据,同时给他们留下深刻的印象。