Unit 2
Text A Metaphors We Live By
George Lakoff and Mark L.Johnson1
Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish—a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language.Moreover,metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone,a matter of words rather than thought or action.For this reason,most people think they can get along perfectly well without metaphor.We have found,on the contrary,that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life,not just in language but in thought and action.Our ordinary conceptual system,in terms of which we both think and act,is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.
The concepts that govern our thought are not just matters of the intellect.They also govern our everyday functioning,down to the most mundane details.Our concepts structure what we perceive,how we get around in the world,and how we relate to other people.Our conceptual system thus plays a central role in defining our everyday realities.If we are right in suggesting that our conceptual system is largely metaphorical,then the way we think,what we experience,and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor.
But our conceptual system is not something we are normally aware of.In most of the little things we do every day,we simply think and act more or less automatically along certain lines.Just what these lines are is by no means obvious.One way to find out is by looking at language.Since communication is based on the same conceptual system that we use in thinking and acting,language is an important source of evidence for what that system is like.
Primarily on the basis of linguistic evidence,we have found that most of our ordinary conceptual system is metaphorical in nature.And we have found a way to begin to identify in detail just what the metaphors are that structure how we perceive,how we think,and what we do.
To give some idea of what it could mean for a concept to be metaphorical and for such a concept to structure an everyday activity,let us start with the concept ARGUMENT and the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR.This metaphor is reflected in our everyday language by a wide variety of expressions:
ARGUMENT IS WAR
Your claims are indefensible.
He attacked every weak point in my argument.His criticisms were right on target.
I demolished his argument.
I've never won an argument with him.
You disagree？Okay,shoot!
If you use that strategy,he'll wipe you out.He shot down all of my arguments.
It is important to see that we don't just talk about arguments in terms of war.We can actually win or lose 1
arguments.We see the person we are arguing with as an opponent.We attack his positions and we defend our own.We gain and lose ground.We plan and use strategies.If we find a position indefensible,we can abandon it and take a new line of attack.Many of the things we do in arguing are partially structured by the concept of war.Though there is no physical battle,there is a verbal battle,and the structure of an argument—attack,defense,counterattack,etc.—reflects this.It is in this sense that the ARGUMENT IS WAR metaphor is one that we live by in this culture;it structures the actions we perform in arguing.
Try to imagine a culture where arguments are not viewed in terms of war,where no one wins or loses,where there is no sense of attacking or defending,gaining or losing ground.Imagine a culture where an argument is viewed as a dance,the participants are seen as performers,and the goal is to perform in a balanced and aesthetically pleasing way.In such a culture,people would view arguments differently,experience them differently,carry them out differently,and talk about them differently.But we would probably not view them as arguing at all:they would simply be doing something different.It would seem strange even to call what they were doing“arguing”.Perhaps the most neutral way of describing this difference between their culture and ours would be to say that we have a discourse form structured in terms of battle and they have one structured in terms of dance.
This is an example of what it means for a metaphorical concept,namely,ARGUMENT IS WAR,to structure(at least in part)what we do and how we understand what we are doing when we argue.The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.It is not that arguments are a subspecies of war.Arguments and wars are different kinds of things—verbal discourse and armed conflict—and the actions performed are different kinds of actions.But ARGUMENT is partially structured,understood,performed,and talked about in terms of WAR.The concept is metaphorically structured,the activity is metaphorically structured,and,consequently,the language is metaphorically structured.
Moreover,this is the ordinary way of having an argument and talking about one.The normal way for us to talk about attacking a position is to use the words“attack a position”.Our conventional ways of talking about arguments presuppose a metaphor we are hardly ever conscious of.The metaphor is not merely in the words we use—it is in our very concept of an argument.The language of argument is not poetic,fanciful,or rhetorical;it is literal.We talk about arguments that way because we conceive of them that way—and we act according to the way we conceive of things.
The most important claim we have made so far is that metaphor is not just a matter of language,that is,of mere words.We shall argue that,on the contrary,human thought processes are largely metaphorical.This is what we mean when we say that the human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined.Metaphors as linguistic expressions are possible precisely because there are metaphors in a person's conceptual system.Therefore,whenever we speak of metaphors,such as ARGUMENT IS WAR,it should be understood that metaphor means metaphorical concept.
cognitive linguistics,some of which he has co-authored with George Lakoff such as Metaphors We Live By.He has also written extensively on philosophical topics such as John Dewey,Kant and ethics.
Words and Expressions
abandon[ə'bændən]vt. to leave the place,thing,or person permanently or for a long time放弃，抛弃
aesthetically[es'θetikli]adv. in a tasteful way审美地，美学观点上地
conceive[kən'si:v]v. to form or devise(a plan,idea,or work)in the mind构思，设想
conceptual[kən'septjuəl]adj. being or characterized by concepts or their formation观念上的
conventional[kən'ven∫ənəl]adj. following accepted customs and proprieties传统的，常见的
counterattack['ka
ntərə,tæk]n. attack intended to counter the opponent's advantage反攻
demolish[di'mɔli∫]v. to say or prove that an argument is wrong推翻，驳倒
discourse['diskɔ:s]n. spoken or written communication论述，交谈
essence['esns]n. the choicest or most essential or most vital part of some idea or experience本质，精华
fanciful['fænsifəl]adj. over-imaginative;unusual and elaborate异想天开的，花哨的
flourish['flʌri∫]n. a showy way;a display of ornamental speech or language夸张的动作；华丽的辞藻
fundamental[,fʌndə'mentəl]adj. very important or essential;affecting the basic nature of other things基本的，根本的
indefensible[,indi'fensəbəl]adj. incapable of being defended or justified站不住脚的；无辩护余地的
intellect['intəlekt]n. knowledge and intellectual ability;very intelligent or clever person智力；知识分子
literal['litərəl]adj. taking words in their usual or most basic sense without metaphor or allegory字面的
metaphorical[,metə'fɔrikəl]adj. expressing one thing in terms normally denoting another比喻性的；隐喻性的
mundane [mʌn'dein，'mʌndein]adj. very ordinary and not at all interesting or unusual平凡的；世俗的
neutral['nju:trəl]adj. belonging to an impartial party,state,or group中立的，中性的
opponent[ə'pəunənt]n. the person who is playing against you对手，反对者
perceive[pə'si:v]vt. to become aware of through the senses意识到
pervasive[pə'veisiv]adj. present or felt throughout a place or thing遍布的
primarily['praimərili]adv. for the most part首要地，主要地
reflect[ri'flekt]v. to throw back to mirror;think deeply or carefully about反射，深思
rhetorical[ri'tɔ:rikəl]adj. intended to be grand and impressive修辞的
Exercises
Ⅰ.Read the text carefully and answer the following questions.
1.Why do most people think they can get along perfectly well without metaphor？
2.How is metaphor pervasive in everyday life according to the authors？
3.Why is our conceptual system not something we are normally aware of？
4.Why does our conceptual system play a central role in defining our everyday realities？
5.What is the essence of metaphor according to the text？
6.Why do the authors say that the human processes are largely metaphorical？
7.Why,by looking at language,can we be aware of something about our conceptual system,which is by no means obvious？
8.What is the theme of the text？
Ⅱ.Paraphrase the following sentences,paying special attention to the italicized part.
1.Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish—a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language.
2.We have found,on the contrary,that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life.
3.In most of the little things we do every day,we simply think and act more or less automatically along certain lines.
4.This metaphor is reflected in our everyday language by a wide variety of expressions.
5.His criticisms were right on target.
6.I demolished his argument.
7.He shot down all of my arguments.
8.Perhaps the most neutral way of describing this difference between their culture and ours would be to say that we have a discourse form structured in terms of battle and they have one structured in terms of dance.
9.Our conventional ways of talking about arguments presuppose a metaphor we are hardly ever conscious of.
10.The language of argument is not poetic，fanciful，or rhetorical;it is literal.
Ⅲ.Complete each of the following sentences with an answer from the four choices given.
1.The research could explain why so many couples with no apparent reproductive problems are unable to______.
A.conceive B.contrive C.perceive D.conceit
2.Our ordinary conceptual system,in terms of______we both think and act,is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.
A.why B.how C.which D.what
3.We simply think and act more or less automatically along certain lines.Just what these lines are,is______obvious.
A.in no time B.by no means C.in case of D.up to
4.It is not just that Western support for autocracy and indulgence of the corruption of Arab rulers is morally______.
A.indomitable B.indefatigable C.indefensible D.inexhaustible
5.Metaphor is a figure of speech______an implied comparison is made between two unlike things that actually have something in common.
A.which B.in which C.that D.where
6.Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish—a matter of extraordinary______ordinary language.
A.rather than B.more than C.other than D.better than
7.She is______in several languages.
A.proficient B.persistent C.consistent D.sufficient
8.English became the official language for business_______the fact that the population was largely Chinese.
A.in spite of B.in ways of C.in favor of D.in terms of
9.The amount will be paid to everyone______whether they have children or not.
A.whatever B.regardless of C.in spite of D.regardless
10.A sense of depression is______in her novels.
A.persuade B.permitted C.permeate D.pervasive
Ⅳ.Use an expression from Text A to complete each of the following sentences.You may need to change the form of the expression.
1.It is not a hotel,in the______sense,but rather a whole village turned into a hotel.
2.Few businesses are______in the present economic climate.
3.The team's_______are unbeaten so far this season.
4.The problem is not______a final one.
5.“Do you think I'm stupid?”she asked______.
6.A recent book has_______this theory.
7.Their furniture was more______than functional.
8.Politicians are skilled at______themselves against their critics.
9.In______，your situation isn't so different from mine.
10.Attendance and assessment show students are actually doing better in terms of______understanding than the normal lecture-station format.
Ⅴ.Complete each of the following blanks with one of the four choices given.
Although it appears more stylistic than argumentative,metaphor is(1)______association(2)______a vital role in furthering the Wired mind-set.Metaphors are collapsed(3)______in which conceptual fusion can be(4)______in a single word.One metaphorical cluster in Wired is that of the“race”.For example,as one CEO interviewed for an essay observed,“When you're faced with a disruptive new technology,you've got to recognize its implications more quickly or—like the dinosaur—you'll watch the mammals eat your eggs”(Bayers,1998，p.168).In many write-ups about product development and corporate decision making,writers imply that the first person or company to the market with a new idea or product will succeed.Making the most of one's opportunities is(5)______essential.
President Franklin Roosevelt first described fear metaphorically,as a curable disease that some were(6)______to“ recover”from.In the following sentence fear took on a battle metaphor,depicted(7)______a“phantom”soon to be“laid”.Roosevelt was the physician who would heal the nation from the disease of fear.He was also the(8)______leader who would slay fear forever.Health,vigor,and fearlessness were the attributes Roosevelt assigned to himself in the midst of the banking crisis.He had used the metaphorical cluster of health and vigor for the past eight years,primarily to overcome the perception that his physical disability would impede political potential.
Metaphors do not in a simple way represent or(9)______a deeper culture or hidden structure.Their use enacts such a structure.Their power comes in the systems deployed,not in something outside or(10)______them.The presence of military metaphors in an organization does not reveal militaristic thinking or necessitate centralized control.(11)______,the use of metaphors implements a manner of distinguishing people and events,unities and oppositions.The repetitive use of a metaphorical cluster is(12)______more or less than that.Counting the number of a particular type of metaphor in a text tells us virtually nothing.Without locating the particular situational deployment,we could not tell whether the same word implemented the same set of(13)______or what the system of control was like.(14)______,extremely tight conformity can be set in play with team and family metaphors as well as with military ones.The move in the particular system of relations rather than what is(15)______to them is the key to the analysis.Metaphors implement power relations,but they also provide opportunity for elaboration,clarification,and resistance.
1.A.another B.the other C.others D.the others
2.A.plays B.play C.playing D.is playing
3.A.simile B.speech C.analogies D.anecdote
4.A.affected B.effected C.affect D.efficient
5.A.otherwise B.thereupon C.therefore D.likewise
6.A.still B.yet C.also D.too
7.A.for B.to C.as D.from
8.A.fear B.fearless C.tireless D.hopeless
9.A.disclose B.reveal C.let out D.conceal
10.A.in B.without C.on D.beyond
11.A.Also B.Rather C.Already D.Or
12.A.everything B.nothing C.something D.anything
13.A.distinctions B.extinction C.distinctive D.instinct
14.A.However B.For example C.In other words D.All in all
15.A.internal B.external C.introvert D.extrovert
Ⅵ.Translate the following sentences into Chinese.
1.The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.
2.The concepts that govern our thought are not just matters of the intellect.They also govern our everyday functioning,down to the most mundane details.
3.This is an example of what it means for a metaphorical concept,namely ARGUMENT IS WAR.
4.This is what we mean when we say that the human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined.
5.Metaphors as linguistic expressions are possible precisely because there are metaphors in a person's conceptual system.
6.Arguments and wars are different kinds of things—verbal discourse and armed conflict—and the actions performed are different kinds of actions.
7.Though there is no physical battle,there is a verbal battle,and the structure of an argument—attack,defense,counterattack,etc.
8.And we have found a way to begin to identify in detail just what the metaphors are that structure how we perceive,how we think,and what we do.
9.Try to imagine a culture where arguments are not viewed in terms of war,where no one wins or loses,where there is no sense of attacking or defending,gaining or losing ground.
10.Since communication is based on the same conceptual system that we are using in thinking and acting,language is an important source of evidence for what that system is like.
Ⅶ.Translate the following sentences into English,using the words given in the parentheses.
1.这个工厂在去年年底被拆除了。(demolish)
2.有些录像带因暴力镜头过多而被查禁。(onthe basis that)
3.在他看来，这个新市长所承诺的全是政治性的虚华辞藻。(rhetoric)
4.绝大部分新移民能和当地人和睦共处。(get along with)
5.董事会认为他的简短发言切中要害。(target)
6.没有阳光和水，植物就不会长得茂盛。(flourish)
7.舞蹈演员们的共同目标就是一起跳得和谐而优美。(common goal)
8.这种常规做法在大城市很盛行。(conventional)
9.当一个社会遭受自然灾害时，国家应该使它重新站起来。(be struck by)
10.他在法庭上的辩词很明显站不住脚。(indefensible)