微积分的力量
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第2章 驾驭无穷的勇士

在芝诺思考了空间、时间、运动和无穷的本质之后,过了大约200年,又有一位思想家发现无穷的魅力让人无法抗拒。这个人就是阿基米德 Archimedes: For his life, see Netz and Noel, The Archimedes Codex, and C.Rorres, “Archimedes,” https://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/contents.html.For a scholarly biography, see M.Clagett, “Archimedes,” in Gillispie, Complete Dictionary, vol.1, with amendments by F.Acerbi in vol.19.For Archimedes’s mathematics, Stein, Archimedes, and Edwards, The Historical Development, chapter 2, are both outstanding, but see also Katz, History of Mathematics, sections 3.1–3.3, and Burton, History of Mathematics, section 4.5.A scholarly collection of Archimedes’s work is Heath, The Works of Archimedes.,在讨论圆的面积时,我们已经“见”过他了。不过,他之所以会成为传奇人物,还有很多其他原因。

关于他,有许多有趣的故事。 stories about him: Martínez, Cult of Pythagoras, chapter 4, traces the evolu tion of the many legends about Archimedes, including the comical Eureka tale and the tragic story of Archimedes’s death at the hands of a Roman soldier during the siege of Syracuse in 212 bce.While it seems likely that Archimedes was killed during the siege, there’s no reason to believe his final words were “Don’t disturb my circles!”有些人把他刻画成最早的数学怪才,比如,历史学家普鲁塔克 Plutarch: The Plutarch quotes are from John Dryden’s translation of Plutarch’s Marcellus, available online at http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/marcellu.html.The specific passages about Archimedes and the siege of Syracuse are also available at https://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Siege/Plutarch.html.告诉我们,阿基米德十分痴迷几何学,以至于“忘记了吃饭, “made him forget his food”: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/marcellu.html.蓬头垢面”。(这种说法很有可能是真的,因为对许多数学家来说,吃饭和个人卫生并不是头等大事。)普鲁塔克接着提到,当阿基米德沉迷于数学时,必须有人“强行拽着他去洗澡” “carried by absolute violence to bathe”: Ibid.。他竟然这么不愿意洗澡,而有趣的是,关于他的一个众所周知的故事,却恰恰跟洗澡有关。据罗马建筑师维特鲁威 Vitruvius: The Eureka story, as first told by Vitruvius, is available in Latin and English at https://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/Vitruvius.html.That site also includes a children’s version of the story by the acclaimed writer James Baldwin, taken from Thirty More Famous Stories Retold (New York: American Book Company, 1905).Unfortunately, Baldwin and Vitruvius oversimplify Archimedes’s solution to the problem of the king’s golden crown.Rorres ofers a more plau sible account at https://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/CrownIntro.html, along with Galileo’s guess regarding how Archimedes might have solved it (https://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/bilancetta.html).说,阿基米德在洗澡时突然产生了灵感,他兴奋得从浴盆里跳出来,赤身裸体地跑到街上大喊:“我发现了!”

其他故事则把他塑造成军事魔术师、勇士科学家或者一人敢死队。根据这些传说,当叙拉古于公元前212年被罗马人围攻时,已是七旬老者的阿基米德利用他的滑轮和杠杆知识,制造出奇炫的武器,为保卫他的家乡做出了贡献。他发明的抓钩和巨型起重机之类的“战争机器”可以把罗马战船从海里吊起来,然后像抖落鞋里的沙子一样把水手们从船上甩出去。普鲁塔克对这个可怕的场景进行了描述,“罗马战船常常被吊到半空中(看上去很可怕), “A ship was frequently lifted up”: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/marcellu.html.然后被不停地来回摇晃,直到水手们都被甩出去,最终船被扔到岩石上或者海里。”

更严肃地说,所有理工科学生之所以记得阿基米德,是因为他提出的浮力原理(浸在流体中的物体所受的浮力与被该物体排开的流体重量大小相等)和杠杆定律(当且仅当杠杆两端重物的重量与它们到支点的距离成反比时,杠杆才会平衡),这两个理论都在实践中得到了无数次应用。阿基米德的浮力原理解释了为什么有些物体能浮起来,而有些不能;它还为造船工程、船舶稳定性理论和海上石油钻井平台的设计奠定了基础。每当你使用指甲刀或者撬棍时,你都在不知不觉地运用阿基米德的杠杆定律。

尽管阿基米德算得上令人敬畏的战争机器制造者,他无疑也是杰出的科学家和工程师,但真正让他永垂不朽的是他在数学上的贡献。阿基米德为积分学铺平了道路,这门学科的最深刻思想在他的著作中清晰可见,只不过它们在将近2 000年后才再次被人们看到。所以,即使我们说他的思想超前于他的时代也毫不过分,难道还有人能比他更超前吗?

有两种策略在他的著作中反复出现。一种策略是他对无穷原则的狂热运用。为了探究圆、球体和其他曲线形状的奥秘,他总是把它们近似成由许多平直部分组成的直线形状,就像切割过的宝石一样。通过想象越来越多和越来越小的组成部分,他使得近似值越来越接近事实,并在组成部分无穷多的极限条件下趋近正确答案。这种策略要求他必须精通求和和解谜,因为他最终只有把很多数字或组成部分重新整合在一起,才能得出结论。

他的另一种与众不同的策略是,把数学与物理学融为一体,把理想与现实合而为一。具体来说,他把几何学(研究形状)与力学(研究运动和力)结合在一起。有时他用几何学来阐释力学,有时则用力学理论来理解几何学。阿基米德正是通过娴熟地运用这两种策略,才解开了曲线之谜。