Part B Text Study

Cargo Work

Appropriateness of cargo work

Although the ocean leg may be viewed as only a part of the total transport chain, it effectively sets limits for the cargo work all along this chain. In order to deliver the cargo to the consignee in as good condition as when it was entrusted to him, the carrier must ensure that all cargo handling operations are done properly and carefully, thus well sweeping and ventilating all holds and tanks of a ship before loading to ensure that the space is clean, dry, odorless and without residue of a previous cargo, carefully making out a stowage plan (SP), and observing the principles in stowage and carriage of cargo are quite crucial to the appropriate cargo work. The shippers have to prepare consignments for transport. The handling and storage of cargo is not their immediate responsibility, but as it will influence the total transport cost and quality, shippers will have to ascertain that the best available methods are provided and used. While in transit, commodities are represented by documents, and it is in the shippers' interest to see that the paper work is handled efficiently.

Merchant ships are designed to carry cargoes. These cargoes may be divided into two basic types: bulk cargoes and general cargoes. Bulk cargoes are carried in specially designed vessels, therefore stowage presents few problems; while general cargo stowage presents many problems because each item has its own type of packaging and characteristics. During stowing the cargo on board, dunnage and separation are needed to secure the cargo. The techniques of cargo work have, at least in ocean transport, developed considerably over the last decades. This is particularly due to technological advances in ship design; rapid development and increase in the tonnage of bulk cargo; the impact of unitization; and the new and modern techniques of refrigeration, particularly with container carriage. It is shippers as a group that have influenced these developments. The requirements for efficient transport have led the transport industry, port authorities (P/A), shipowners, etc., to develop new concept for ship technology and cargo handling. It is up to the individual shipper to utilize the available methods of transport and cargo handling in order to be competitive in the international markets. At a minimum, requirements must be properly defined by shippers so that the most appropriate services may be made available by the carrier.

Cargo preparations

The shippers have to follow procedures laid down by public authorities as well as commercial practices with regard to packaging, marking, etc.

1. Packaging. Transport usually subjects the cargo to mechanical forces (shocks,vibrations, pressures) and/or climatic forces (temperature, moisture). At least for a conventional shipment, the packaging needs to be strong enough to withstand the rigors of stowage and multiple handling. Goods which are not packed properly may damage other goods in the same transport, for which the shippers may be liable. Thus some sort of packaging will normally be a prerequisite for carrying commodities like general cargo, especially in break bulk. Package can be outer package (transport package) and inner package (sales package), and its functions are to keep a consignment together, protect the goods, facilitate delivery, reduce cost, prevent the goods from damaging the environment and promote sales. In order to maximize the functions of package, decision has to be made with careful consideration for different factors. Some variables are key to the choice of package, and they are properties of cargo, mode of transport, customs or statutory requirements, weather, insurance, transportation cost, ease of handling and stowage.

2. Marking. Marking refers to different diagrams, words, and figures which are written, printed, or stenciled on the outside of the shipping packing. When goods are well enwrapped by the packing, there is no clue to the identification of them, hence certain kind of indicator to guide their handling of the cargo along the flow of logistics is needed. Marking plays an important role in the use of transport packing. According to its function, marking can be classified into shipping marks, indicative marks, warning marks, and supplementary marks. Shipping marks (recognition marks) are a type of marking on the shipping packing, and their functions are to quicken the identification and help avoid shipping errors. Therefore, the design of shipping marks should be simple, clear, and easily identifiable. International standard shipping marks recommended are made up of four parts: consignee's code which is usually the initials or abbreviation of a consignee, reference number which is the number of the relevant contract, order, invoice, etc., destination which is the name of the port or place of destination, and number of packages which is the consecutive number of each package. Adopting standard shipping marks can not only make it easy to identify and transport the goods, but also simplify the process of checking the relative documents and certificates. Indicative marks (protective marks or handling instructions) are diagrams and simple words used to call the attention of the parties concerned when they handle the goods in the process of loading, unloading, carrying, and storing. When necessary, indicative marks are also painted or stenciled on the outer package of the commodities to draw attention for proper handling. Especially with fragile commodities, it is important to mark the package with handling directions to avoid breakage and other damages. To avoid language difficulties, a set of internationally recognized signs are developed for cargo marking. Warning marks (dangerous goods marks) are used to indicate dangerous goods to ensure their safe carriage in international transport. In general, goods are regarded as dangerous if they have chemical or physical properties which can damage other goods, materials, or the environment. The IMO has worked out rules for the handling of dangerous goods at sea in conventions which have been ratified by most member countries. These rules contain regulations regarding packaging, marking and labeling, stowage requirement, etc., for various types of dangerous goods. As per the IMDG Code, there are nine categories of dangerous goods: explosive substance;compressed gases and liquefied gases; flammable liquid; combustible substance/substance liable to spontaneous, combustion/combustible substance in wet; oxidizing substance and organic peroxide; toxic substance and infectious substance; radioactive substance; corrosive substance; and others. Sometimes, in accordance with the rules and regulations laid down by the importing and exporting countries, or the agreement entered into by the parties concerned, some supplementary marks are inserted such as the mark of weight or volume and the mark of origin.

Cargo loading and discharge

The rate at which cargo is loaded and/or discharged from a ship has a significant bearing upon the overall cost of transport. Excessive time in port deprives consignees of the use of their goods, and ship operators of the use of their vessels. Therefore, the improvement of cargo handling methods has been a constant aim of many of those concerned in the operation of ships. The earliest efforts to increase cargo handling rates were concentrated mainly on the transfer medium, and led to the development of a wide range of mechanical equipment, such as cranes, conveyors, etc., which has substantially improved loading and discharging rates, especially for bulk cargoes. General cargo handling has, however, not benefited to such a great extent from such developments. In liner shipping, the principal restriction to high handling rates has always been the large variety of packagings used for general cargo, so that significant improvements have only become possible by reducing the number of different forms in which goods are presented for shipment. Thus it is only with the adoption of unitization that general cargo carriers have achieved high transfer rates and been able to take advantage of handling techniques similar to those which have been developed for homogeneous cargoes.

It is customary to distinguish between vertical and horizontal loading of ships as well as other means of transport. With vertical loading, the cargo must pass over the rail of the ship and into the holds through hatches in the deck. Derricks, cranes, and conveyor belts are commonly used for the transfer of dry commodities. Liquids and gases are moved through pipelines. This traditional method is very useful for the handling of bulk cargoes. Horizontal loading of cargo is done through openings in the bow, side, or stern of a ship. These ships are commonly referred to as Ro/Ro ships as the cargo can be accepted on wheeled vehicles. Flexibility and fast port turnarounds are the essential features of Ro/Ro operations, and cargo handling rates can be significantly increased. Not all horizontal loading ships are strictly Ro/Ro ships. Pallet carriers may, for example, have side doors only and the cargo is loaded or discharged by fork-lift trucks operating on the quayside.

Cargo stowage

The carriers are generally responsible for the stowage of cargo aboard the vessel and handle the stowage and carriage of cargo in accordance with some salient principles.

1. Minimum broken stowage. Shipping space must be utilized to the utmost and broken stowage reduced to the minimum, that is, the amount of unused space should be kept as low as possible to obtain the best economical use of the vessel. The stowage factor of the cargo indicates the volume of the cargo hold occupied by one ton of cargo and is best explained by this example: one ton of lead will take up less space than one ton of cotton. This volume, or space, can be defined as bale space, grain space or oil space according to the type of cargo carried.1By bale space is meant the volume of the cargo holds that can be used for general cargo; by grain space is meant the volume of the cargo holds that can be used for dry bulk cargo; and by oil space is understood 98 percent of the total volume of the wet bulk tanks. The remaining 2 percent is called ullage and serves as expansion-space to allow for an increase of volume when a cargo of oil is heated up and will consequently expand.

2. Maximum port speed. The distribution of cargo in the holds must be such as to assist correct and speedy cargo handling. The order of destinations should be considered when stowing the cargo aboard. The cargo should be stowed in reverse order of the intended discharges to avoid rearrangements of the consignments and adverse impact on the ship's stability, trim, or strength.2It would be bad seamanship if, on a voyage from Hamburg to Rotterdam and then to Antwerp, the cargo that has Antwerp as its destination must be discharged first in order to be able to reach the Rotterdam-cargo. That is, when loading a general cargo at a variety of ports, the problem of where to place the individual cargoes must be solved to secure minimum time in port.

3. Maximum cargo safety. Some cargoes are notorious for causing damage to the ship and other cargo that is carried. Sweating and intermixing of cargoes must therefore be avoided by segregating the different types of cargoes; heavy cargo should not be stowed onto light cargo; wet cargo should not be stowed onto dry cargo; cargoes whose qualities may be deteriorated by each other's odors should not be stowed close together; optional cargoes (cargoes whose destinations are unknown at the moment of loading) must be stowed separately; and perishable cargoes should be stowed in refrigerated stowage spaces.

4. Maximum ship and crew safety. The most important principle to be considered is for the safety of ship and crew, which implies that the cargo is stowed with due regard to the ship's stability, trim, and strength in the loaded condition. The total weight loaded must not exceed the load line marks permitted. In addition, particular attention must be drawn to the proper manner in the use of equipment and labor provided by the port and also in the application of ship's gear to cargo handling procedures.3

5. Proper dunnaging. Experience shows that the main contributory factors towards damage to cargoes while in vessels are crushing, dampness, contact with ironwork of ship or other cargo, and lack of proper ventilation. In view of this, it is essential that special attention should be given to the dunnaging of cargo to prevent undue damage to cargoes on the voyage. Dunnage may be wood planking, wood chocks, bamboo, mats, paper, ropes, plastics, inflatables, or other materials used to prevent damage to cargo, wedge it in place, protect it from the ship's sides, frames, or stanchions, and raise it from ceiling or deck. That is, material used to segregate different types of cargoes is called dunnage. Wood dunnage is used with bale cargoes to raise the bales a little from the floor for ventilation, so that sweating water can freely flow to the bilges as quickly as possible. Wood planks will be laid at intervals on the ceiling to raise cargo off the floor. If the cargo is subject to moisture damage, paper will be laid over the wood planks, and metal beams and stanchions will be wrapped in paper. If cargo is bagged, such as grain, seeds, or coffee, common practice is to lay burlap separation cloth under the load to collect sweepings, or leakage from bags, and to ensure that such are clean when collected after cargo is discharged.

6. Proper cargo separation. Efficient and proper cargo separation is quite necessary for most types of cargoes and particularly so for different consignments of identical looking units. Special paint, chalk, cargo nets or tarpaulins, etc., are usually used to separate the cargoes.

7. Special care for heavy lifts and awkward cargo. Special care must be exercised by the ship's officer to ensure the effective securing and lashing of the heavy lifts and awkward cargo. Any negligence could cause great damage to ship and cargo, and even constitute potential danger to the ship and crew when at sea. In addition, the insurance claim on the ship, arising from damage due to ineffective securing and lashing of this kind of cargoes can be high. Hence, before loading, the chief officer must obtain the information on the weight, dimensions, and special requirements for the heavy lifts and awkward cargoes so as to decide the effective ways of cargo loading, dunnaging, securing, and lashing.

8. Special treatment of dangerous goods. Dangerous goods, or hazardous cargoes, can damage other goods, materials or the environment due to their chemical or physical nature. Whenever dangerous goods are carried, the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG). Code must be consulted with the carrier for proper information. It is the chief officer's duty to inspect with utmost rigor the packaging, marking, and documentation of all dangerous goods according to the classes and designs specified in the IMDG Code, and set out a stowage plan or separate manifest indicating where the dangerous goods are stowed aboard.

It is common to distinguish between horizontal and vertical stowage of general cargo in a ship. With horizontal stowage the cargo is spread over a relatively large area; while in vertical stowage the consignments are stacked on top of each other so that space can be better utilized. Bulk cargoes present little difficulty in stowage, as they can fill up the holds as appropriate. In some cases, the cargo needs to be trimmed, that is, to be moved so that the vessel can be filled up and best utilized. While stowage of goods is important for the utilization of space in containers and holds, packaging and stowage must also be carefully considered in relation to marketing and the needs and specifications of the customers, as well as in relation to minimizing damage.

Cargo damage

Though all necessary precautionary steps to prevent cargo damage may have been taken, it is not always possible to eliminate damage altogether in maritime transport. Cargo damage commonly occurs in loading, discharging or carriage, and it takes many forms, such as original damage, stevedore damage, heavy weather damage, sweat damage, pilferage damage, and damage arising from inherent nature or vice of goods. It is important to note that the carrier has the burden of proving the cause of the loss or damage is one of the excepted perils.This will mean that the carrier must prove how the damage occurred. Additionally, where the damage is caused by two or more causes, one of which is excluded and the other is not, the carrier must distinguish between the damages caused by the excepted peril and the damages caused by the non-excepted peril. If the carrier cannot make this distinction, he is probably liable for the whole damages. It is further important to remember that the carrier cannot rely upon any of the excepted perils if a cause of the damage failed to exercise due diligence to make the vessel seaworthy.

Neither the carrier nor the ship shall be responsible for loss or damage or delay arising or resulting from the following circumstances: Act of God; perils, dangers, and accidents of the sea or other navigable waters; war, hostilities, armed conflict, piracy, terrorism, riots, and civil commotions; quarantine restrictions; interference by or impediments created by governments, public authorities, rulers, or people including detention, arrest, or seizure not attributable to the carrier; strikes, lockouts, stoppages, or restraints of labor; fire on the ship; latent defects not discoverable by due diligence; act or omission of the shipper, the documentary shipper, the controlling party, or any other person for whose acts the shipper or the documentary shipper is liable;4 loading, handling, stowing, or unloading of the goods performed pursuant to the relative agreement, unless the carrier or a performing party performs such activity on behalf of the shipper, the documentary shipper, or the consignee;wastage in bulk or weight or any other loss or damage arising from inherent defect, quality, or vice of the goods; insufficiency or defective condition of packing or marking not performed by or on behalf of the carrier; saving or attempting to save life at sea; reasonable measures to save or attempt to save property at sea; and reasonable measures to avoid or attempt to avoid damage to the environment.5

Cargo unitization

The purpose of cargo unitization is to assist the process of cargo handling through reducing the handling frequency of each cargo unit. Cargo unitization can largely improve the efficiency of cargo work and promote quick-response (QR) and environment-friendly transport.

1. Definition and main forms of cargo unitization. Cargo unitization, also named unit load, makes up of a number of small sized items into one unit of standard size, i.e. the assembly and packing of a number of cargos, either the same or different items, into a standardized or compact unit for ease of handling by the mechanical equipment. Containerized goods, palletized goods, Ro/Ro goods, lash goods, and carload goods are examples of a unitized load. Now containerization has become a predominant form of unitized transport, and another popular unitization form is palletization. The use of marine containers aims at providing sea/land through transport, for various types of general cargo by means of an internationally standardized transport unit, without need for the contents to be taken out or repacked en route (the door-to-door concept), thus containerization has largely promoted the development of multimodal transport (MT), including landbridge transport.

2. Benefits of cargo unitization. The benefits of cargo unitization are obvious (Table 3.1), and these benefits may be important for shippers, for example, through intangible increased goodwill with overseas consignees. Especially with containers, handling is reduced to a minimum, cargo is less exposed to damage from weather, and valuable goods are less liable to pilferage. Special containers (e.g. for perishable goods) provide the shipper with a wide choice of transport options which may be of commercial value to him. Money may be saved in packaging and possibly in insurance, and the documentation and paperwork may be reduced to a minimum, hence further reducing overheads and simplifying search and claim procedures.

3. Limitations of cargo unitization. However, the required investments in unitized transport modes, along with the complementary loading and unloading facilities, may be justified only en routes with relatively large volumes of goods to be transported. These requirements may lead to the adoption of the unitized transport system primarily for developed countries which have relatively large intratrade. As a result, the unitized approach may primarily lower transport costs on developed countries' intratrade and in the largest developing countries' ports. This could undercut the position of smaller developing countries' shippers that do not have access to these new systems.

Notes

1. Shipping space must be utilized to the utmost and broken stowage reduced to the minimum, that is, the amount of unused space should be kept as low as possible to obtain the best economical use of the vessel. The stowage factor of the cargo indicates the volume of the cargo hold occupied by one ton of cargo and is best explained by this example: one ton of lead will take up less space than one ton of cotton. This volume, or space, can be defined as bale space, grain space or oil space according to the type of cargo carried.

舱容应得到最大限度的利用，并把亏舱降到最低程度，即未利用的舱容应保持在最低状态以保证船舶最经济实用。货物的积载因素表明一吨重量的货物所占货舱的容积，如一吨重量的铅占用的舱容小于一吨重量的棉花。根据装运货物类型的不同，船舶容积或舱容可分为包装舱容、散装舱容或油舱容。

2. The distribution of cargo in the holds must be such as to assist correct and speedy cargo handling. The order of destinations should be considered when stowing the cargo aboard. The cargo should be stowed in reverse order of the intended discharge to avoid rearrangements of the consignments and adverse impact on the ship's stability, trim, or strength.

货舱中货物的配载必须有助于准确和快速地装卸货物。积载船上的货物时，应考虑目的港的顺序。通常的做法是按将要驶往的目的港的逆序积载货物，以避免货物的重新积载，同时也要考虑到船舶的稳性、纵倾或强度。

3. The most important principle to be considered is for the safety of ship and crew, which implies that the cargo is stowed with due regard to the ship's stability, trim, and strength in the loaded condition. The total weight loaded must not exceed the load line marks permitted. In addition, particular attention must be drawn to the proper manner in the use of equipment and labor provided by the port and also in the application of ship's gear to cargo handling procedures.

最重要的原则是要考虑船舶与船员的安全，这就意味着货物的积载应充分考虑到船舶在满载状态下的稳性、纵倾和强度。所装运货物的总重量不应超过允许的载重线标志。同时，要特别注意港口提供的设备的正确使用和恰当的人工作业，也要注意船上用于货物装卸的设备的恰当使用。

4. Act of God; perils, dangers, and accidents of the sea or other navigable waters;war, hostilities, armed conflict, piracy, terrorism, riots, and civil commotions; quarantine restrictions; interference by or impediments created by governments, public authorities, rulers, or people including detention, arrest, or seizure not attributable to the carrier; strikes, lockouts, stoppages, or restraints of labor; fire on the ship; latent defects not discoverable by due diligence; act or omission of the shipper, the documentary shipper, the controlling party, or any other person for whose acts the shipper or the documentary shipper is liable…

天灾；海上或者其他通航水域的风险、危险和事故；战争、敌对行动、武装冲突、海盗、恐怖活动、暴乱和民变；检疫限制；政府、公共机构、统治者或者人民的干涉或者造成的障碍，包括不是由承运人所造成的滞留、扣留或者扣押；罢工、关厂、停工或者劳动受限；船上发生火灾；恪尽职守仍无法发现的潜在缺陷；托运人、单证托运人、控制方或者托运人或者单证托运人对其承担责任的其他任何人的作为或者不作为。

5. …loading, handling, stowing, or unloading of the goods performed pursuant to the relative agreement, unless the carrier or a performing party performs such activity on behalf of the shipper, the documentary shipper, or the consignee; wastage in bulk or weight or any other loss or damage arising from inherent defect, quality, or vice of the goods; insufficiency or defective condition of packing or marking not performed by or on behalf of the carrier; saving or attempting to save life at sea; reasonable measures to save or attempt to save property at sea; and reasonable measures to avoid or attempt to avoid damage to the environment.

按照约定进行的货物装载、操作、积载或者卸载，除非承运人或者履约方代表托运人、单证托运人或者收货人实施此项活动；由于货物固有缺陷、品质或者瑕疵而造成的数量或者重量损耗或者其他任何灭失或者损坏；非由承运人或者代其行事的人所做包装不良或者标志欠缺、不清；海上救助或者试图救助人命；海上救助或者试图救助财产的合理措施；避免或者试图避免对环境造成危害的合理措施。

Comprehension Enhancement

Decide whether the following statements are true or false and try to correct the false ones.

( ) 1. Master should consider the principles of stowing and carrying the cargoes, and make out a stowage plan.

( ) 2. Warning marks are suitable for explosives, inflammable materials, poisons, and radioactive.

( ) 3. Derricks, cranes, conveyor belts, and pipelines are commonly used for the transfer of dry commodities.

( ) 4. Oil space is 96 percent of the total volume of the wet bulk tanks, and the remaining 4 percent is the expansion space.

( ) 5. Cargo separation is necessary for most types of cargoes and particularly so for the same looking consignments for different consignees.

( ) 6. Horizontal stowage refers to the cargoes stacked on top of each other to better use the cargo spaces.

( ) 7. The carrier can always rely on the excepted perils to exonerate himself from any damages.

( ) 8. Stevedore damage refers to the damage to cargo, which occurs as a result of rough handling of cargo by longshoremen at the loading or discharging port.

( ) 9. Container transport, pallet transport and Ro/Ro transport are the main forms of unitized transport.

( ) 10. Unitization leads to a lower transport costs both on intratrade among developed countries and in the ports of developing countries.