第3章　词和形态学

3.1　复习笔记

本章要点：

1．Word Senses

词的含义

2．Classification of Word

词的分类

3．Word Formation

词的形成

4．Lexical Change

词汇的变化

常考考点：

词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法(合成与派生)；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素(词根，词缀和词干)；词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词。

本章内容索引：

I. Word

1．Three Senses of “Word”

＊2. Identification of Words

3．Classification of Words

(1) Variable and invariable words

(2) Lexical (content) words and grammatical (functional) words

(3) Closed-class words and open-class words

(4) Word class

II. Morpheme and Morphology

1．Definition

2．Types of Morphemes

(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme

(2) Root, affix and stem

(3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix

3．Inflection and Word Formation

(1) Inflection

(2) Word Formation

4．Allomorph

＊III. The Counterpoints of Phonology and Morphology

1．Sememe vs. Morpheme

2．Morpheme vs. Phoneme

3．Phonological Structure vs. Morpheme Structure

4．Morphophonology vs. Morphophonemics

IV. Lexical Change

1．Lexical Change Proper

(1) Invention

(2) Blending

(3) Abbreviation (clipping)

(4) Acronym

(5) Back-formation

＊(6) Analogical creation

＊(7)Class shift

＊(8) Borrowing

＊2. Semantic Change

(1) Broadening

(2) Narrowing

(3) Meaning shift

(4) Folk etymology

＊3. Phonological Change

(1) Loss

(2) Addition

(3) Metathesis

(4) Assimilation

＊V. Word Group and Phrase

I. Word (词)

Word is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether in spoken or written form.

词是个语言表达单位，无论是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人都能够凭直觉识别这个语言单位。

1．Three Senses of “Word” (词的三种含义)

(1) a physically definable unit;

(2) both a general and specific term;

(3) a grammatical unit.

(1) 词是自然的有界限的对立单位；

(2) 词既是一个普通术语又是一个专门术语；

(3) 词是一个语法单位。

＊2. Identification of Words (词的识别)

(1) stability (稳定性)

Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.

(2) relative uninterruptibility (相对连续性)

The new elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in a word.

(3) a minimum free form (最小的自由形式)

Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance.

(1) 就词的内部结构而言，词是所有语言单位中最稳定的。

(2) 连续性指的是一个词的几个成分之间不可介入新的成分，即使这个词由多个成分构成。

(3) 词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位。

3．Classification of Words (词的分类)

【考点：判断词的所属类型——可变vs.不变；语法vs.词汇；封闭vs.开放】

(1) Variable and invariable words (可变词和不变词)

Variable words have inflective endings, namely, part of the word remains constant while the other part changes regularly to fulfill different grammatical functions.

Invariable words, such as since, when, hello, do not have inflective endings.

可变词有形态变化，即词的一部分保持不变，另一部分有规则地变化以实现不同的语法功能。不变词没有形态变化。

(2) lexical (content) words and Grammatical (functional) words (词汇词和语法词)

①Those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.

具有词汇意义(指代物质、动作和性质)的词称为词汇词，例如名词、动词、形容词和副词。

②Those which mainly used for constructing groups, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, e.g., conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns.

表达语法意义的词是语法词，例如连词、介词和代词。

(3) Closed-class words and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词)

Closed-class words refer to those whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. It is hard for one to add or deduce a new member.

Open-class words are those whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited and can be added with the development of society, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs.

封闭类词的成员数目固定，数量有限。像代词、介词、连词和冠词都属于封闭类词，一般不能轻易增加或衍生新的成员。

相比之下，开放类词的成员数目基本上是无限的，其数目会随着社会发展不断地、经常地增加。名词、动词、形容词和副词属于开放类词。

(4) Word class (词类)

A more practical way is to classify words either by analyzing their grammatical properties or by grouping them into classes according to their formal similarities. But there are only two classes, something like today’s subject and predicate. Later, nine word classes were established: they were noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection and article. Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammar. They are particles, auxiliaries, determiners.

关于词汇分类的一种更为实际的方法就是根据他们的形式的相似之处分析词汇分类的语法属性或分组成类。但只有两类，类似今天的主语和谓语。之后，词汇被分成九种词类：他们是名词、代名词、形容词、动词、副词，介词，连词、感叹词和冠词。今天，几种词类被引入了语法。他们是小品词，辅助词，限定词。

II. Morpheme and Morphology (语素和形态学)

1．Definition (定义)

Morpheme is the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed, including inflection and word formation.

语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。

形态学研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则，包括屈折变化和词的形成两个领域。

2．Types of Morphemes (语素的类型)

【考点：判断语素所属类型—自由vs.粘着；词根vs.词缀vs.词干】

(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme (自由语素和粘着语素)

①Free morphemes are those which may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemes are free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes, are compounds.

②Bound morphemes cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme.

①自由语素指能够单独出现或独立成词的语素。所有的单语素词都是自由语素，由自由语素构成的多语素词为复合词。

②粘着语素指不能单独出现，必须跟至少一个其他语素共同出现的语素。

(2) Root, affix and stem (词根，词缀和词干)

①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. All words contain a root morpheme. It can either be a free morpheme or a bound morpheme.

②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme which can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem) , so affix is naturally bound. Affixes are generally classified into four subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, infix and circumfix, depending on their position around the root or stem of a word.

③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational affix.

①词根是构成词的基础成分，不能再做进一步分析而不破坏其意义。每个词都包括一个词根语素，它可以是自由语素或粘着语素。

②词缀是那些只能附着于另一个语素(词根或词干) 上的一类语素的总称。词缀都是粘着语素，可分为前缀、后缀、中缀和环缀四种。

③词干指能加屈折词缀的语素(组合) ，它相当于词根或词根加派生词缀。

(3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix (屈折词缀与派生词缀)

【考点：屈折词缀与派生词缀的区别】

Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word but only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.

Derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning and the word class. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes (e.g. drums, walks, Mary’s), but derivational affixes can be prefixes (e.g. suburban, online, depart) or suffix(e.g. teacher, workable).

屈折词缀不改变原词的词类，只在词干后面添加一个微小或微妙的语法意义。

派生词缀常常改变词汇的意义和词类。英语中屈折词缀多为后缀，但派生词组还可以是前缀或后缀。

3．Inflection and Word Formation (曲折变化与词的形成)

(1) Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.

曲折变化是通过附加屈折词缀表现语法关系，如数、人称、有定性、体和格，不改变所附加词干的语法类别。

(2) Word Formation: It refers to the process of word variation signaling lexical relationships. It can be further divided into compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).

词的形成指词形变化的过程，这些词形变化是标志词项之间关系的。词的形成可以进一步分为复合类(复合词)和派生类(派生词)两种。

①Compound: It refers to those words which have more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. There are several different ways of classification of compounds.

复合词指那些由一个以上的词汇语素构成的词，或者由两个独立的词连接起来的构成新的形式。复合词有多种分类方式。

i. Compounds can be divided into noun compounds, verb compounds, adjective compounds and preposition compounds.复合词可以分为名词复合词，动词复合词，形容词复合词和介词复合词。

ii. Compounds can be further divided into the endocentric and the exocentric compound.

Endocentric compound refers to a compound which has a center or a head word.

Exocentric compound is one which has no center or a head word.

复合词可以进一步分为向心复合词和离心复合词。

向心复合词指具有一个意义上的中心词的复合词。

离心复合词指没有一个意义上的中心词的复合词。

▼iii. Besides, in terms of the relationship between the sub-components of a compound, it can be divided into attributive compounds which is made of two lexemes with one modifying the other; coordinative compounds in which the two sub-components are equal without one modifying the other; and subordinative compounds with one of the sub-component being understood to be the argument of the other. Among these three kinds of compound, the first two are also called root compounds and the last synthetic compounds.

根据组成复合词的子部分之间的关系，复合词还可以被分为修饰复合词，并列复合词和从属复合词。修饰复合词的特点是其中一个子部分修饰另一子部分；并列复合词的特点是两个子部分呈并列关系，这两种复合词又叫做根复合词。而从属复合词又叫做综合复合词，因为其中的一个子部分被视为另一个子部分的论元。

②Derivation: It refers to the process to add an affix to an already existing form to create a word, which includes prefixation, suffixation, and even both.

Derivations, in contrast to inflections, can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.

派生法指通过在词干上加上词缀而得到一个新词的方法，主要包括前缀化、后缀化或者两者同时发生。

派生和曲折变化相反，派生可改变原始词的词类，也可以不改变原始词的词类。

▼Catagorisation in derivation(派生过程中的范畴化)

Derivational processes which involve the change of the category of the base lexeme are also called categorisation. In such a process, the attached affix is called a categoriser, which carries an important piece of grammatical information, the categorial feature. It should be noted that many categorisers are semantically vacuous, the only function of which is to change the category of the base lexeme.

派生过程涉及原本词素的范畴变化，因此该过程也叫做范畴化过程（与认知语言学中的范畴化不同）。在这一范畴化的过程中，被添加的带有语法信息的词缀叫做分类标志，其所代表的语法信息叫做分类特征。需要注意的是分类标志本身没有意义，其唯一功能就是改变原本词素的范畴。

4．Allomorph (语素变体)

Those morphs which represent the same morpheme are called the allomorphs of the same morpheme. For instance, the noun plural morpheme {plural} in English has [-s], [-z], [-iz], [-ai], [-n], [-i], [Ø] and other morphs, such morphs are termed as the allomorphs of the morpheme {plural}.

Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, some others may have considerable variations; some morphemic shapes represent different morphemes and thus have different meanings, for instance, the morphemic shapes {-s} can express plurality in desks, person/ finiteness in speaks and case in girl’s.

那些代表同一语素的不同形素叫做该语素的语素变体。例如，英语名词复数语素{plural}有[-s], [-z], [-iz], [-ai], [-n],[-i:], [Ø]等不同的形素，它们叫做复数语素{plural}的语素变体。

有些语素在任何语境中都只有一个形式，还有的有多个变化形式；有些语素形式能表示不同意义的语素，“s”可以表示复数、人称/有定性，也可以表示格。

＊III. The Counterpoints of Phonology and Morphology (音系学和形态学的对立)

1．Sememe vs. Morpheme (义素与语素)

Sememe is the smallest component of meaning. For example, the morpheme –s has only one sememe: plurality, meaning more than one. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

As for the relationship between sememe and morpheme, there are five occasions.

(1) One morpheme vs. one sememe, such as the morpheme –less has just one sememe WITUOUT.

(2) One morpheme vs. more than one sememe, such as –a has three sememes.

(3) One sememe vs. more than one morpheme. For example, there are other morphemes besides a- that also indicate the sememe of no or non.

(4) Morphemes that have no specific sememe, such as en-, that have no specific sememe, but may help change grammatical and semantic categories.

(5) Function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change. For example, when run is in run a company, it is a verb, but when in in a short run, it is a noun.

义素是意义的最小单位，例如语素{-s}仅含有一个义素(复数)，意思是多于一个。语言的最小意义单位，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不被破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。

语素和义素的关系有五种情况。

(1) 一个语素对应一个义素，例如-less只有一个意义即没有。

(2) 一个语素对应多个义素，例如-a有三中含义。

(3) 一个义素对应多个语素，例如除了a-还有其他的语素能表达否定含义。

(4) 语素没有具体对应的义素，例如en-没有具体的义素，但是能改变语法和语义范畴。

(5) 语素没变，语素和义素的功能都变。例如run能作名词也能作动词用。

2．Morpheme vs. Phoneme (语素与音位)

Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. It is the smallest unit in grammar. Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound. A single phoneme may represent a morpheme, but they are not identical, e.g., the phoneme /z/ represents the plural morpheme in “caps” but nothing in “praise”.

语素是最小的语义单位，它是语法中的最小单位。音位是语音中的最小单位，单个音位可以代表一个语素，但它们不是同一的。例如音位/z/在“cups”代表了复数的语素，但是在“raise”却与语素无关。

3．Phonological Structure vs. Morpheme Structure (语素结构与音位结构)

Morphemes may be represented by phonological structures, which are monophonemic, monosyllabic or polysyllabic.

语素可以通过音系结构呈现。语素可以是单音位的，也可以是单音节的或多音节的。

4．Morphophonology vs. Morphophonemics (形态音系学或形态音位学)

Morphophonology or morphophonemics is a branch of linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.

形态音系学又叫形态音位学，研究音位学和形态学的关系，对影响语素形式的音位要素或影响音位形式的语法要素进行分析和分类。它主要研究音系学与形态学之间的内部关系。

IV. Lexical Change (词汇变化)

Apart from compound and derivation, lexical change includes invention, blending, abbreviation, acronym, backformation, analogical creation and borrowing.

词汇的变化除了复合词和派生词之外，还有新创词语、混成法、缩写法、缩略语、逆构词法、类推构法以及借词。

1．Lexical Change Proper (特有词汇变化)

【考点：名词解释&指出一词的词汇变化方式】

(1) Invention(coinage): It is also called coinage, which refers to the new lexical items which come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Coke, nylon and others to cope with the invention of new entities.

新创词又称造词，指直接用某一种商品的生产商或者商标的名字作为该类产品名称的造词方法，例如Coke, nylon等，它们都已成为了代表新事物的新创词语。

(2) Blending: A process in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words, such as alcopop (alcohol + pop), faction (fact + fiction) , flare (flame + glare) , etc.

混成法是指一个词由两个单词混合而成，一般把第一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来，或者是把两个单词的开头部分连接起来。例如alcopop (alcohol + pop) , faction (fact + fiction) , flare (flame + glare) ,等。

(3) Abbreviation (clipping): The way of shortening a longer word into a shorter form, e.g. photograph - photo, gasoline - gas, etc.

缩写法(截断法)，是指把一个较长的词汇通过截断而得到的较短的词的构词方法。例如photograph - photo, gasoline - gas等。

(4) Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword, e.g. NATO, UNESCO.

缩略语是由组织机构的首字母组成的，而这个组织机构的名称有多重修饰语，例如NATO, UNESCO。

【考点：指出Acronym与Initialism的区别】

(5) Back-formation refers to an unusually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language, e.g. back-form.

逆构词法是一种不规则的构词类型，即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀，由此造出一个较短的单词，例如back-form。

＊(6) Analogical creation: The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs.

类推构词：某些英语动词同时具有规则的和不规则的两种变化形式，这可以用这类构词的原则来解释。

＊(7) Class shift: By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as ZERO-DERIVATION, or CONVERTION.

词类转换：通过改变词的词类从而改变词的意义，词的意义从一个具体的实体或概念变成一个过程或一种属性。这种形成词的方法较零派生或转换。

＊(8) Borrowing: It is also called loan, which means the words have been borrowed from the other languages. There are several types of processes with regard to borrowing.

①Loanwords: It is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.

②Loanblend: It is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.

③Loanshift: It is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.

④Loan translation: It is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.

借词法是指从其他语言中借来的词放在自己语言中使用。借词法有以下几种类型：

①借词：借词是指形式和意义都是借用的，有时为了适应新语言的音位系统，可以有些细小的改变。

②混合借词：混合借词是指借词的一部分来自本国语，另一部来自外来语，但是意义全都是借过来的。

③转移借词：转移借词的意义是借用的，但是形式是来自本国语。

④翻译借词：翻译借词是一种特殊的借用，每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中的语素或对单词对等地翻译过来的。

【考点：区分四种借词方式并举例】

＊2. Semantic Change (语义变化)

【考点：简答—指出语义变化的主要方式并举例说明】

(1) Broadening: It is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.

(2) Narrowing: It is contrary to broadening; the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.

(3) Meaning shift: The change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction, what makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage.

(4) Folk etymology: It refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.

(1) 词义扩大：词义扩大就是指把意义从原来具体的意思扩充到相对概括的意思。

(2) 词义缩小：词义缩小是指与词义扩大相反的一个过程，原来的词义缩小或被限制到某个明确的意义上。

(3) 词义转移：词义转移跟概括和限制没有关系，导致词义变化的原因是它在隐喻手法中离开了原来的语义领域。

(4) 俗词源：俗词源是指由于对词源错误而又普遍的解释或对词义的错误理解，或者由于受到更熟悉的词汇的影响而进行了错误的类推，导致词或短语的形式有了新的意义。

＊3. Phonological Change (音位变化)

Phonological change refers to the change in sound leading to changes in form. It is related to language variations in the phonological system of language.

音位变化是指因为语音上的改变而导致的形式变化。音位变化跟语言学音位系统的各种变化有关。

The factors contribute to the formation of new pronunciation:

(1) Loss: The loss of sound can refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. It may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels.

(2) Addition: It refers to the addition of some sounds to the original sound sequence.

(3) Metathesis: It is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds.

(4) Assimilation: It refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.

导致新发音产生的因素：

(1) 脱落：语音脱落是指音位系统中作为音位的某个语音的消失。语音脱落也可以在语句中发生，往往是某些非重读元音发生脱落。

(2) 添加：添加是指把某些语音添加到语音原有的链条上。

(3) 换位：换位是指语流中一种可供选择的方法。

(4) 同化：同化是指由于邻近语音的影响而产生的语音变化，更明确的叫法是“接触”同化或“邻近”同化。

＊V. Word Group and Phrase (词组和短语)

Word Group is a group of words; it is an expansion of a word. Phrase is a contraction of a clause.

词组是一组词，它是一个词的扩展。短语是一个从句的缩写式。

1．Nominal Group (名词性词组)

In a typical nominal group, there are head, premodifier, postmodifier.

在一个典型的名词性词组中，有中心词，前修饰词和后修饰词。

2．Other Groups (其他词组)

①Verbal group动词词组

②Adverbial group副词词组

③Conjunction group连词词组

④Preposition group介词词组

3．Prepositional Phrase (介词短语)

Any expression with a preposition followed with an item is a prepositional phrase.

任何以介词跟随的表达式是介词短语。