CHAPTER 1 Background and Motivation

Most project managers are passionate about accomplishing challenging objectives but lack similar passion for doing detailed planning, reporting progress, or explaining their success or failure in meeting baseline targets. Projects often prove difficult because project managers are striving to accomplish their targets while working through previously uncharted territory without dedicated resources. Therefore, a good deal of a project manager’s time might be spent in negotiations to acquire the resources needed.

People intimately involved in a project have knowledge that others do not possess. Sometimes we take advantage of this information asymmetry to protect the project or the project team or to buy ourselves more time for solving problems and reaching project goals. Regardless of the project manager’s or team’s feeling about the project, its continuation depends on communication with owners and other interested parties about the project’s status. An earned value management system (EVMS) is a commonly accepted methodology for objectively communicating project progress.

OUR BASIC PREMISE

Although your company may be an exception, most organizations do not have a well-organized and functioning project office that controls the entry of projects into the system and tracks progress on all active projects from charter to close. It is widely accepted that projects are unique and inherently risky. Nevertheless, rather than being subject to controls commensurate with their risk, they are usually not even subject to the same degree of internal control that is applied to repetitive operations with far less risk.

Projects traditionally have populated the twilight area between current reality and desired future position. We usually know where we are; we also know where we would like to be, but sometimes we don’t know exactly how to get there. That’s where projects enter the picture. Rather than being integrated into a coordinated organizational portfolio, projects typically have been “sold” independently, by clients or by the heads of various organizational divisions. We are not suggesting that projects are promoted for nefarious reasons, but merely that divisional responsibilities drive spirited competition for funding.

Once projects are approved and funded, progress is generally not well tracked by project owners. For the most part, project metrics are rudimentary and primarily involve milestone achievement, budget consumption, and subjective progress reporting by the project manager.

THE THREE BASIC PARAMETERS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project management revolves around the three basic project characteristics: scope, schedule, and budget. EVMS provides the metrics for comparing what has been planned with what has been completed within these three parameters (Figure 1.1). Although EVMS establishes very precise organizational and reporting requirements, it does not prescribe how the project must be managed. It allows the flexibility to use a variety of project management processes as long as they meet the required criteria. While the critical path method is most common, it is not generally required; newer methods, such as critical chain, are permitted and sometimes encouraged.

FIGURE 1.1Basic Project Metrics

BUSINESS CHANGES

Several recent events have encouraged organizations to restrain their “everyone-for-themselves” mentality concerning project management. Our increased pace means we don’t have time for a major failure. We can’t spend months working on a project, bring it to a successful but delayed conclusion, and find that the environment has changed so that the deliverables no longer have value. A project like that should have been sped up, if possible, or killed early enough to transfer its resources to projects with better prospects. Without critical project information, decision makers charged with global project responsibility sometimes operate blindly.

The completion of some projects might determine the life or death of the organization. Other projects have profound influence on the company’s future success. Many if not most projects have some effect on the entity’s financial reporting. If so, stringent internal controls dictated by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) (Sarbanes and Oxley 2002) might apply. Even if a project currently is not required to meet the law’s financial operations internal control criteria, it might be required to do so in the future. EVMS offers an internal control environment that should meet SOX internal control requirements.

THE NEED FOR A COST AND SCHEDULE CONTROL SYSTEM

Recognizing the problem of poor project performance and having dealt repeatedly with the shock of overruns and underperformances, the federal government more than 40 years ago commissioned the development of a project measurement system based on a standard cost model. This system became known as Cost/Schedule Control Systems Criteria (C/SCSC). Private industry found the requirements cumbersome and suggested a revision in the mid-1990s. The new criteria were formally named the Earned Value Management System, and in 1996 the government formally adopted 32 revised EVMS criteria. The American National Standards Institute Guidelines for EVMS, ANSI/EIA-748-1998, were issued in 1998, and government requirements were adjusted to the 1998 standard. Another minor update occurred in 2006.

For many years, private governmental contractors have been required to use EVMS on large government projects. On operations performed by the U.S. government for itself, such as work at repair depots and other project-oriented work, the government is rapidly implementing earned value metrics that affect total funding. Because EVMS offers enhanced control features, many companies are now interested in employing it for nongovernmental work.

Meanwhile, the accounting profession has had its own problems over the past few years with scandals that have prompted investors to demand more transparency from corporations. SOX established the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board to rein in auditing firms by instituting rigorous control over their activities. One of the board’s first pronouncements, formally approved by the SEC (U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission 2003, 96), establishes exactly how public accounting firms must audit internal controls. In 2008, similar rules were established for nonaccelerated filers (U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission 2008). If an external or internal auditor decides to look at your project, you must be prepared to show adequate internal controls.

Part of the reason many corporations are not forthcoming about their plans is that they do not want to provide their competitors with information about their strategies. Nor does top management want to risk embarrassment by public strategic failures resulting from commissioning the wrong projects or having the projects’ deliverables not align with the organization’s strategic initiatives. However, in light of recent scandals and public attention in the media, corporations are being pressured to be more candid and transparent about the status of their future plans. And if the boss is being pressured, you know it won’t be long before the project managers begin to feel the heat!

The biggest impetus to the intense spotlight on project control is the enactment of SOX. While the act itself emphasizes internal control over financial processes, the final rules issued by the SEC introduced a newly defined phrase: “disclosure controls and procedures.” This phrase expands the concept of internal controls over financial reporting into the broader area of controls and procedures with regard to disclosure of material financial and nonfinancial information in public reports. Disclosure controls and procedures are likely to encompass project performance.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT MATURITY

The project management profession has recognized the need to improve. Its response to dismal internal control over projects has been to detail the formal steps of organizational maturity in managing and delivering projects. Project management maturity models have been devised to standardize and improve an organization’s ability to implement its strategy by consistently delivering successful projects.

Although organizations are aware of the various versions of the project maturity model, most organizations are at the lowest steps of the model’s progression. For example, consider a typical five-level model. Those at Level 1 have a project management process, but not a generalized structured process and standards. To achieve Level 2, it is necessary to achieve Level 1 and also to have standard project metrics in place. To reach Level 3, the organization must possess standards and institutionalized processes that involve project metrics and must evaluate performance among projects. An organization must adopt either earned value or comparable metrics to master Levels 2 and 3 of project management maturity.

Only after achieving Level 3 (necessitating that the requirements of Levels 1 and 2 also have been met) can an organization attempt Levels 4 and 5, which tackle continuous improvement efforts. These last levels offer tremendous benefits to organizations—especially those that arrive there before their competitors!

Thus, implementing EVMS is a worthy goal for you and your organization. However, even though EVMS is useful for reporting general progress to persons outside the project team, it does not solve all project management problems and, in certain cases, creates problems of its own. Earned value metrics were developed as an extension of a standard cost system, and attempting to manage a project using EVMS metrics alone can be disastrous. In subsequent chapters, we discuss exactly how to comply with EVMS and still successfully manage your project work. Along the way, we will present additional ideas and project management tools that can be used profitably with EVMS.

LOOKING FOR VALUE IN ALL THE WRONG PLACES

It is especially true in difficult economic times that organizations must be very careful about investments in new initiatives and very hard-nosed about return on those investments. Projects must realize their objectives; however, achieving project success does not have to be a complicated process. Success is not about mastering complicated theories or finding and adopting the latest business fad. Project success is about discipline—being able to stick to a proven process, starting with a well-planned project.

No project plan can be considered complete without having some way of measuring how well the project earns its expected value. One recommended approach is for project plans to explicitly include the deliverables in the project’s baseline. The number of additional tasks that fully utilize the deliverables in the manner intended may be surprising.

It’s all about value—perceived or real. In the movie Trading Places, Dan Aykroyd played a character who lost his job and had to pawn his wristwatch. No matter how hard he tried to convince the pawnbroker that the watch was actually worth thousands of dollars, the pawnbroker’s response was, “In Philadelphia, it’s worth 50 bucks.” More recently, banks holding portfolios of derivative securities, especially residential mortgage-backed securities and collateralized debt obligations, have been forced to write them down drastically to more realistic values. You might not be the one who initially sold your project, but you must continually sell yourself and your work on that project to demonstrate value to your organization. One way to do that compellingly and objectively is with EVMS. Keep in mind that even though EVMS informs others about your work, you must still use good project management judgment and skills.

Today, we face immense pressure to take shortcuts in order to deliver value faster. The result is that we do not take the time to plan our activities fully. Following EVMS requirements will give you the opportunity to overcome most deficiencies in planning and controlling your projects. EVMS helps justify the project’s value by requiring careful definition of the program objective, directing continual focus on ongoing project costs, and incorporating very stringent progress measurement processes.

OUR EXAMPLE PROJECT

To maintain continuity and to facilitate understanding of the requirements of EVMS concepts, we have created a common baseline project. We have attempted to keep the example project simple enough for illustration purposes yet realistic enough to enable you to translate the concepts into your own project environment.

Many exciting projects are being managed all over the world. For example, some very intriguing ones are being conducted or considered through a program called the Intelligent Manufacturing Systems, an international research and development program designed to develop the next generation of manufacturing and processing technologies. Other projects are underway to deliver medical miracles or to explore uncharted areas of the earth and the universe. While these projects are exciting, they also are extremely complex. Of necessity, our example project must be both one that is simple to understand and one to which we can all relate. Although we look at several historical projects, some of which are very complex, we use our example project to illustrate important points.

The example project is to install a new information technology (IT) system—specifically, a customer relations management (CRM) system. In this project, CRM is intended to give our example organization complete access to and control over all information about customers and prospects. We expect the system to automate all the day-to-day tasks for our sales and marketing professionals, as well as our office and field customer service; to interface with production; and to integrate with our other back-office systems. Many companies that have attempted to install this system have found the process extremely challenging—a “mission impossible” without a happy ending.

An entire CRM implementation from conception to completion would be too complex for our simple illustration, so we will use a subproject. Our assumptions are that a new CRM software system has been researched, approved, purchased, customized, and tested. A new data store has been defined and created for the required information elements. Our project is called “Project CRM: The Final Step.” It is intended to train the users, install the hardware, distribute the workstation software, and provide a support system.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Discuss with your colleagues some major project management failures of which you have personal knowledge. Try to establish the root cause of the failures.

2. List some factors you believe would create a major project success.

3. At what level of project management maturity is your organization, and where does it aspire to be?

4. Why are you interested in learning about EVMS?

5. What impact do you think the Sarbanes-Oxley Act has on project management?

6. Why do you believe it is difficult to deliver a project on time, within budget, and with full specifications intact?