Unit Two
The Four Noble Truths
Thus has it been said by the Buddha, the Enlightened One:
D.16.
It is through not understanding, not realizing four things, that I, Disciples, as well as you, had to wander so long through this round of rebirths. And what are these four things? They are:
The Noble Truth of Suffering (dukkha);
The Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering (dukkha-samudaya);
The Noble Truth of the Extinction of Suffering (dukkha-nirodha);
The Noble Truth of the Path that leads to the Extinction of Suffering (dukkha-nirodha-gāmini-paṭipadā).
S. LVI. 11
As long as the absolutely true knowledge and insight as regards these Four Noble Truths was not quite clear in me, so long was I not sure that I had won that supreme Enlightenment which is unsurpassed in all the world with its heavenly beings, evil spirits and gods, amongst all the hosts of ascetics and priests, heavenly beings and men. But as soon as the absolute true knowledge and insight as regards these Four Noble Truths had become perfectly clear in me, there arose in me the assurance that I had won that supreme Enlightenment unsurpassed.
M. 26
And I discovered that profound truth, so difficult to perceive, difficult to understand, tranquilizing and sublime, which is not to be gained by mere reasoning, and is visible only to the wise.
The world, however, is given to pleasure, delighted with pleasure, enchanted with pleasure. Truly, such beings will hardly understand the law of conditionality, the Dependent Origination (paṭicca-samuppāda) of everything; incomprehensible to them will also be the end of all formations, the forsaking of every substratum of rebirth, the fading away of craving, detachment, extinction, Nibbāna.
Yet there are beings whose eyes are only a little covered with dust: they will understand the truth.
The Noble Truth of Suffering
D.22
What, now, is the Noble Truth of Suffering?
Birth is suffering; Decay is suffering; Death is suffering; Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief, and Despair are suffering; not to get what one desires, is suffering; in short: the Five Groups of Existence are suffering.
What, now, is Birth? The birth of beings belonging to this or that order of beings, their being born, their conception and springing into existence, the manifestation of the Groups of Existence, the arising of sense activity: this is called birth.
And what is Decay? The decay of beings belonging to this or that order of beings; their becoming aged, frail, grey, and wrinkled; the failing of their vital force, the wearing out of the senses: this is called decay.
And what is Death? The departing and vanishing of beings out of this or that order of beings, their destruction, disappearance, death, the completion of their life-period, dissolution of the Groups of Existence, the discarding of the body: this is called death.
And what is Sorrow? The sorrow arising through this or that loss or misfortune which one encounters, the worrying oneself, the state of being alarmed, inward sorrow, inward woe: this is called sorrow.
And what is Lamentation? Whatsoever, through this or that loss or misfortune which befalls one, is wail and lament, wailing and lamenting, the state of woe and lamentation: this is called lamentation.
And what is Pain? The bodily pain and unpleasantness, the painful and unpleasant feeling produced by bodily impression: this is called pain.
And what is Grief? The mental pain and unpleasantness, the painful and unpleasant feeling produced by mental impression: this is called grief.
And what is Despair? Distress and despair arising through this or that loss or misfortune which one encounters, distressfulness, and desperation: this is called despair.
And what is the ‘Suffering of not getting what one desires'? To beings subject to birth there comes the desire: ‘O, that we were not subject to birth! O, that no new birth was before us! ' Subject to decay, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair, the desire comes to them: ‘O, that we were not subject to these things! O, that these things were not before us! ' But this cannot be got by mere desiring; and not to get what one desires, is suffering.
The Five Khandhas, or Groups of Existence
M. 28
And what, in brief, are the Five Groups of Existence? They are corporeality, feeling, perception, (mental) formations, and consciousness.
M. 109
All corporeal phenomena, whether past, present or future, one's own or external, gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near, all belong to the Group of Corporeality; all feelings belong to the Group of Feeling; all perceptions belong to the Group of Perception; all mental formations belong to the Group of Formations;all consciousness belongs to the Group of Consciousness.
These Groups are a fivefold classification in which the Buddha has summed up all the physical and mental phenomena of existence, and in particular, those which appear to the ignorant man as his ego or personality. Hence birth, decay, death, etc. are also included in these five Groups which actually comprise the whole world.
The Group of Corporeality (rūpa-khandha)
M. 28
What, now, is the ‘Group of Corporeality? ' It is the four primary elements, and corporeality derived from them.
The Four Elements
And what are the four Primary Elements? They are the Solid Element, the Fluid Element, the Heating Element, the Vibrating (Windy) Element.
The four Elements (dhātu or mahā-bhūta), popularly called Earth, Water, Fire and Wind, are to be understood as the elementary qualities of matter. They are named in Pali, paṭhavī-dhātu、 āpo-dhātu、 tejo-dhātu、 vāyo-dhātu, and may be rendered as Inertia, Cohesion, Radiation, and Vibration. All four are present in every material object, though in varying degrees of strength. If, e.g., the Earth Element predominates, the material object is called ‘solid', etc.
The ‘Corporeality derived from the four primary elements' (upādāya rūpa or upādā rūpa) consists, according to the Abhidhamma, of the following twenty-four material phenomena and qualities: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, visible form, sound, odour, taste, masculinity, femininity, vitality, physical basis of mind (hadaya-vatthu; see B. Dict.), gesture, speech, space (cavities of ear, nose, etc.),decay, change, and nutriment.
Bodily impressions (phoṭṭhabba, the tactile) are not especially mentioned among these twenty-four, as they are identical with the Solid, the Heating and the Vibrating Elements which are cognizable through the sensations of pressure, cold, heat, pain etc.
l. What, now, is the ‘Solid Element' (paṭhavī-dhātu)? The solid element may be one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own solid element? Whatever in one's own person or body there exists of karmically acquired hardness, firmness, such as the hairs of head and body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, stomach, bowels, mesentery, excrement and so on-this is called one's own solid element. Now, whether it be one's own solid element, or whether it be the external solid element, they are both merely the solid element.
And one should understand, according to reality and true wisdom, ‘This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego'.
2. What, now, is the ‘Fluid Element' (āpo-dhātu)? The fluid element may be one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own fluid element? Whatever in one's own person or body there exists of karmically acquired liquidity or fluidity, such as bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, skin-grease, saliva, nasal mucus, oil of the joints, urine, and so on-this is called one's own fluid element. Now, whether it be one's own fluid element, or whether it be the external fluid element, they are both merely the fluid element.
And one should understand, according to reality and true wisdom, ‘This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego'.
3. What, now, is the ‘Heating Element' (tejo-dhātu)? The heating element may be one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own heating element? Whatever in one's own person or body there exists of karmically acquired heat or hotness, such as that whereby one is heated, consumed, scorched, whereby that which has been eaten, drunk, chewed, or tasted, is fully digested, and so on—this is called one's own heating element. Now, whether it be one's own heating element, or whether it be the external heating element, they are both merely the heating element.
And one should understand, according to reality and true wisdom, ‘This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego'.
4. What, now, is the ‘Vibrating (Windy) Element‘ (vāyo-dhātu)? The vibrating element may be one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own vibrating element? What in one's own person or body there exists of karmically acquired wind or windiness, such as the upward-going and downward-going winds, the winds of stomach and intestines, the wind permeating all the limbs, in-breathing and out-breathing, and so on—this is called one's own vibrating element. Now, whether it be one's own vibrating element or whether it be the external vibrating element, they are both merely the vibrating element.
And one should understand, according to reality and true wisdom, ‘This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego.’
Just as one calls ‘hut' the circumscribed space which comes to be by means of wood and rushes, reeds, and clay, even so we call ‘body' the circumscribed space that comes to be by means of bones and sinews, flesh and skin.
New Words and Expressions
absolutely/ˈæbsəluːtli/adv. 绝对地；完全地
arise/əˈraɪz/vi. 生起；出现
being / ˈbiːɪŋ / n. 有情；存在；生命
Birth / bɜːθ / n. 生
bodily impressions 身触
body / ˈbɒdɪ / n. 身净色；身体
comprise/kəmˈpraɪz/vt. 包含；构成
corporeality / kɔːˌpɔːrɪˈælɪtɪ / n. 色；物质性；肉体的存在
co rporeality derived from the four primary elements 四大所造色
co rporeality, feeling, perception, (mental) formations, and consciousness / n. 色，受，想，（心）行，识
Decay / dɪˈkeɪ / n. 老
Dependent Origination 缘起
diaphragm / ˈdaɪəfræm / n. 隔膜
dissolution / ˌdɪsəˈluːʃn / n. 衰败；死亡；消亡
distress / dɪˈstres / n. 焦虑
ear / ɪə(r) / n. 耳净色；耳
encounter/ɪnˈkaʊntə(r)/vi. 遇到（困难或不利的事）
evil spirits 魔
excrement / ˈekskrɪmənt / n. 排泄物；粪便
extinction / ɪkˈstɪŋkʃn / n. 灭；消亡；消失
eye / aɪ / n. 眼净色；眼
femininity / ˌfeməˈnɪnəti / n. 女性根色
Five Groups of Existence 五蕴；五蕴有；五取蕴
fivefold/ˈfaɪvfəʊld/adj. 五重的
Fluid Element 水大
Four Elements 四界；四大
gesture / ˈdʒestʃə(r) / n. 身表；姿态
gods / ˈgɒdz / n. 梵天；神
grease / griːs / n. 油膏；油脂
Group of Consciousness 识蕴
Group of Corporeality 色蕴
Group of Feeling 受蕴
Group of Formations 行蕴
Group of Perception 想蕴
Groups of Existence 诸蕴
Heating Element 火大
heavenly beings 天；天人
ignorant/ˈɪgnərənt/adj. 无知的
karmically/adv. 依业地
Law of Conditionality 缘起法
life-period 一期生命
manifestation (of) / ˌmænɪfeˈsteɪʃn / n. ……的显现；表现形式
masculinity / ˌmæskjuˈlɪnəti / n. 男性根色
mental formations 行
mental impression 意触
mesentery / ˈmesəntərɪ / n. 肠系膜
nasal mucus 鼻涕
nose / nəʊz / n. 鼻净色；鼻
not to get what one desires 求不得
nutriment / ˈnjuːtrɪmənt / n. 食色；营养物
odour / ˈəʊdə(r) / n. 香；气味
origin / ˈɒrɪdʒɪn / n. 起源
perceive/pəˈsiːv/vt. 觉知；观察到
phenomena / fəˈnɒmɪnə / n. 现象（phenomenon的复数）
phlegm / flem / n. 痰
physical basis of mind 心所依处
predominate/prɪˈdɒmɪneɪt/vi. 统治；支配
priest / priːst / n. 婆罗门
pus / pʌs / n. 脓
radiation / reɪdɪˈeɪʃ(ə)n / n. 辐射；暖；发光
reality / rɪˈælɪtɪ / n. 实相；真实
saliva / səˈlaɪvə / n. 唾液
sense / sens / n. 根；感觉；官能
Solid Element 地大
Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief, Despair / n. 悲，哀，痛，恸，绝望
sound / saʊnd / n. 声；声音
space / speɪs / n. 空界；空间
speech / spiːtʃ / n. 语表；讲话
spleen / spliːn / n. 脾
sublime/səˈblaɪm/adj. 殊妙的；庄严的
subtle/ˈsʌtl/adj. 微妙的；微细的
suffering of not getting what one desires 求不得苦
taste / teɪst / n. 味；味道
the Noble Truth of Suffering 苦圣谛
tongue / tʌŋ / n. 舌净色；舌
tranquilizing/ˈtræŋkwɪlaɪzɪŋ/pr./p. 寂静；使……安静
true wisdom 真实智
Vibrating (Windy) Element 风大
visible form 色
vital force 命；命的根；生命力
vitality / vaɪˈtæləti / n. 命根色；生命力；活力
wail/weɪl/n./vi. 痛哭；哀号
woe / wəʊ / n. 悲哀；悲苦；苦恼
Grammar
●佛教关键概念往往是以“数词 + 名词”的形式表示的，如：
四圣谛，三法印，五蕴，十二因缘，八正道，四念处，七觉支等。
翻译为英语时，有以下几种情况：
（1）多习惯直接使用巴利（梵）文的，如：
三藏：Ti-piţaka（Three Baskets），三宝：ti-ratana（Three Jewels），三皈依：Ti-sarana（Threefold Refuge）。
（2）习惯译为“数词 + 名词”词组的，如：
The Four Noble Truths（四圣谛）；
Five（Moral） Precepts（五戒）。
（3）使用“数词 + fold + 单数名词”的形式，如：
“Threefold Refuge”（三皈依）。
为什么不是“three refuges”?
这是因为，巴利文的“ti-sarana”是单数，不是复数，而且，“三皈依”是一个整体的概念，不是三个互相独立的“庇护所”。
“八圣道”（ariya-atthangika-magga）英文译为 “Noble eightfold path”（单数），也是同样的道理。
●数词和表示“度量单位”的词构成词组，可修饰另一个名词，如：
A three-year project, a 3-year period, a 5-year loan, seven-year itch （七年之痒）。
It's a five-minute walk from the library to the playground.
从图书馆到操场需要走五分钟。
She's a sixteen-year-old girl.
她是个十六岁的女孩。
Laura is a 30-year-old mother of three.
劳拉是个30岁的母亲，有三个孩子。
I'll need a five-hundred-dollar retainer.
我将收取500美元的定金。
This model is powered by a l.8-litre petrol engine.
这一型号用1.8升汽油发动机驱动。
可参考以下网页：http://www.yygrammar.com/Article/20l303/3l5l_2.html。
●注意：数词和名词（形容词）中间用连字符，词组中的名词不用复数。
《佛言》课文中的：“After a six year's quest…”
现代英语中要说 “After six years' quest…”或 “After a six-year quest…”。
Five and forty years.
这是古英语（Middle English）数词的语序。
e.g. eahta and twentiġ （twenty-eight）。
在《圣经》较早的版本中，也有这种用法。
e.g. And Arphaxad lived five and thirty years, and begat Salah.… And Eber lived four and thirty years, and begat Peleg.（旧约创世纪）美国天主教会新版圣经则改为“When Eber was thirty-four years old, he became the father of Peleg”。
顺便提一下，英语属日耳曼语系，其数词与德语数词同源。直到今天，现代德语还是同样的语序。e.g. Fünf und Vierzig Jahre. （45 years）
Exercises
l. Why is life suffering?
2. List the aspects or phases of life, from birth to death, and explain why they cause suffering?
3. How do you understand the statement “The five groups of existence are suffering”?
4. Name the Four Primary Elements, and explain how they relate to our body.
5. How do you define “body”?
6. Compare the following compound words:
Ti-pitaka: three baskests (pl.)
Ti-ratana: three jewels (pl.)
Ti-sarana: threefold refuge (sing.)
Why is “threefold refuge”singular, and not plural?
7. Do yo agree that every corporeal element in the body is karmically acquired?
Could there be any material component of the body that is not karmically acquired?